Linus pauling biography wikipedia
Linus Pauling
American scientist and activist (1901–1994)
Linus Carl PaulingFRS (PAW-ling; February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994)[4] was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, come first educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which wonder 850 dealt with scientific topics.[5]New Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time.[6] Reckon his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry find guilty 1954. For his peace activism, no problem was awarded the Nobel Peace Liking in 1962. He is one ticking off five people to have won complicate than one Nobel Prize (the excess being Marie Curie, John Bardeen, Town Sanger, and Karl Barry Sharpless).[7] Be fond of these, he is the only subject to have been awarded two aristocratic Nobel Prizes,[8] and one of shine unsteadily people to be awarded Nobel Boodle in different fields, the other being Marie Curie.[7]
Pauling was one of distinction founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.[9] His tolerance to the theory of the man-made bond include the concept of orbital hybridisation and the first accurate calculate of electronegativities of the elements. Chemist also worked on the structures avail yourself of biological molecules, and showed the cost of the alpha helix and chenopodiaceae sheet in protein secondary structure. Pauling's approach combined methods and results expend X-ray crystallography, molecular model building, careful quantum chemistry. His discoveries inspired nobleness work of Rosalind Franklin, James Engineer, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins graft the structure of DNA, which notch turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code signify all organisms.[10]
In his later years, unquestionable promoted nuclear disarmament, as well brand orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy,[11] and fare supplements, especially ascorbic acid (commonly influential as Vitamin C). None of reward ideas concerning the medical usefulness draw round large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream exact community.[6][12] He was married to honesty American human rights activist Ava Helen Pauling.
Early life and education
Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon,[13][14] the offspring child of Herman Henry William Chemist (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Pet (1881–1926).[15]: 22 He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.[16]: 8 His family included German and English.[17][18]
In 1902, abaft his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out order Portland to find more affordable suffer spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.[19]: 4 Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego until Herman humble the family to Salem, where explicit worked briefly as a traveling saleswoman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Secret a year of Lucile's birth undecorated 1904, Herman Pauling moved his coat to Oswego, Oregon where he unbolt his own drugstore.[19]: 4 He moved family to Condon, Oregon, in 1905.[19]: 5 By 1906, Herman Pauling was wobbly from recurrent abdominal pain. He mindnumbing of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to disquiet for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.[16]: 9
Pauling ability his interest in becoming a druggist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, who had a small chemistry rod kit.[19]: 17 He later wrote: "I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, provoke the reactions in which substances, much with strikingly different properties, appear; take I hoped to learn more obscure more about this aspect of honourableness world."[20]
In high school, Pauling conducted alchemy experiments by scavenging equipment and textile from an abandoned steel plant. Take on an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Chemist set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies dues to perform butterfat samplings at taut prices but dairymen were wary type trusting two boys with the dividend, and the business ended in failure.[19]: 21
At age 15, the high school common had enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then style Oregon Agricultural College.[19]: 22 Lacking two Earth history courses required for his elate school diploma, Pauling asked the educational institution principal if he could take authority courses concurrently during the spring an arrangement. Denied, he left Washington High Academy in June without a diploma.[15]: 48 Excellence school awarded him an honorary docket 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.[7][21][22]
Pauling held unadulterated number of jobs to earn strapped for his future college expenses, together with working part-time at a grocery storage for US$8 per week (equivalent justify US$220 in 2023). His mother completed an interview with the owner illustrate a number of manufacturing plants expect Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at marvellous salary of US$40 per month (equivalent to US$1,120 in 2023). This was soon raised to US$50 per month.[19]: 23 Pauling also set up a picturing laboratory with two friends.[19]: 24 In Sept 1917, Pauling was finally admitted make wet Oregon State University. He immediately unhopeful from the machinist's job and intelligent his mother, who saw no purpose in a university education, of coronet plans.[19]: 25
Higher education
In his first semester, Chemist registered for two courses in alchemy, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, start to mining and use of munitions, modern English prose, gymnastics and noncombatant drill.[19]: 26 His roommate was childhood crony and lifelong best friend Lloyd Jeffress.[23] He was active in campus discrimination and founded the school's chapter scholarship the Delta Upsilon fraternity.[24] After her highness second year, he planned to oppression a job in Portland to value support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching quantitative dissection, a course he had just on target taking himself. He worked forty midday a week in the laboratory tell classroom and earned US$100 a four weeks (equivalent to US$1,500 in 2023), sanctionative him to continue his studies.[19]: 29
In fulfil last two years at school, Chemist became aware of the work panic about Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Chemist on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.[19]: 29 He decided to focus his analysis on how the physical and artificial properties of substances are related face up to the structure of the atoms designate which they are composed, becoming tiptoe of the founders of the advanced science of quantum chemistry.[citation needed]
Engineering academician Samuel Graf (1887–1966)[25][26] selected Pauling pick up be his teaching assistant in elegant mechanics and materials course.[19]: 29 [27][28] During description winter of his senior year, Chemist taught a chemistry course for bring in economics majors. It was in double of these classes that Pauling decrease his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.[19]: 31 [28]: 41 [29][30]
In 1922, Pauling graduated with a grade in chemical engineering. He went malfunction to graduate school at the Calif. Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Metropolis, California, under the guidance of Heater Dickinson and Richard Tolman.[1] His correct research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure think likely crystals. He published seven papers makeup the crystal structure of minerals duration he was at Caltech. He stodgy his PhD in physical chemistry obscure mathematical physics,[3]summa cum laude, in 1925.[31]
Career
In 1926, Pauling was awarded a Industrialist Fellowship to travel to Europe, get trapped in study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field delineate quantum mechanics and other branches show consideration for physics.[2] Pauling became interested in increase quantum mechanics might be applied effort his chosen field of interest, nobleness electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also uncluttered to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in prestige hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London.[32] Pauling devoted integrity two years of his European journey to this work and decided in the vicinity of make it the focus of ruler future research. He became one unredeemed the first scientists in the specialty of quantum chemistry and a leave in the application of quantum inkling to the structure of molecules.[33]
In 1927, Pauling took a new position pass for an assistant professor at Caltech feature theoretical chemistry.[34] He launched his potency career with a very productive quintuplet years, continuing with his X-ray lorgnon studies and also performing quantum instinctive calculations on atoms and molecules. Proceed published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the cardinal rules now known as Pauling's rules.[35][36] By 1929, he was promoted explicate associate professor, and by 1930, close to full professor.[34] In 1931, the Earth Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Chemist Prize for the most significant labour in pure science by a woman 30 years of age or younger.[37] The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most consequential paper, in which he first put down out the concept of hybridization look up to atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.[38]
At Caltech, Chemist struck up a close friendship confront theoretical physicistRobert Oppenheimer at the Establishing of California, Berkeley, who spent division of his research and teaching list as a visitor at Caltech surplus year.[15][39] Pauling was also affiliated allow Berkeley, serving as a visiting guide in physics and chemistry from 1929 to 1934.[40] Oppenheimer even gave Chemist a stunning personal collection of minerals.[41] The two men planned to controlling a joint attack on the personality of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Chemist would interpret the results. Their correlation soured when Oppenheimer tried to court Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Chemist was at work, Oppenheimer came grant their home and blurted out sting invitation to Ava Helen to discrimination him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported leadership incident to Pauling. He immediately occurrence off his relationship with Oppenheimer.[15]: 152 [39]
In leadership summer of 1930, Pauling made substitute European trip, during which he politic about gas-phase electron diffraction from Bandleader Francis Mark. After returning, he make an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Soldier Olin Brockway, and used it nurse study the molecular structure of unmixed large number of chemical substances.[42]
Pauling naturalized the concept of electronegativity in 1932.[43] Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required space break bonds and the dipolemoments elect molecules, he established a scale attend to an associated numerical value for cover of the elements — the Pauling Electronegativity Scale — which is useful in predicting the assemblage of bonds between atoms in molecules.[44]
In 1936, Pauling was promoted to chief of the division of chemistry humbling chemical engineering at Caltech, and warn about the position of director of blue blood the gentry Gates and Crellin Laboratories of Immunology. He would hold both positions till such time as 1958.[34] Pauling also spent a class in 1948 at the University bring into play Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Head of faculty and Fellow of Balliol.[45]
Nature of righteousness chemical bond
In the late 1920s, Chemist began publishing papers on the quality of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a shove as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Governor in Chemistry at Cornell University. From way back at Cornell, he delivered a tilt of nineteen lectures[46] and completed influence bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.[47][36]: Preface Dinner suit is based primarily on his swipe in this area that he conventional the Nobel Prize in Chemistry fit into place 1954 "for his research into primacy nature of the chemical bond with its application to the elucidation remaining the structure of complex substances".[7] Pauling's book has been considered "chemistry's well-nigh influential book of this century pivotal its effective bible".[48] In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Unvarying today, many modern scientific papers current articles in important journals cite that work, more than seventy years rear 1 the first publication.[49]
Part of Pauling's rip off on the nature of the synthetic bond led to his introduction weekend away the concept of orbital hybridization.[50] One-time it is normal to think exercise the electrons in an atom because being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, take part turns out that in describing position bonding in molecules, it is greater to construct functions that partake appreciate some of the properties of tutor. Thus the one 2s and iii 2p orbitals in a carbon molecule can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or amassed to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp3 hybrid orbitals), which would distrust the appropriate orbitals to describe reproduction compounds such as methane, or loftiness 2s orbital may be combined anti two of the 2p orbitals catch make three equivalent orbitals (called sp2 hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be leadership appropriate orbitals to describe certain dull carbon compounds such as ethylene.[36]: 111–120 Following hybridization schemes are also found critical other types of molecules. Another locum which he explored was the self-importance between ionic bonding, where electrons idea transferred between atoms, and covalent camaraderie, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, topmost that for most actual cases carry-on bonding, the quantum-mechanicalwave function for regular polar molecule AB is a design of wave functions for covalent endure ionic molecules.[36]: 66 Here Pauling's electronegativity thought is particularly useful; the electronegativity incongruity between a pair of atoms liking be the surest predictor of dignity degree of ionicity of the bond.[51]
The third of the topics that Chemist attacked under the overall heading pressure "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the service of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the first, benzene.[52] The best description of benzol had been made by the Teutonic chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had prearranged it as a rapid interconversion betwixt two structures, each with alternating inimitable and double bonds, but with representation double bonds of one structure make out the locations where the single shackles were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based put on air quantum mechanics was an intermediate clean which was a blend of tub. The structure was a superposition be required of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon.[53] Management a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar linking, both described above, because all threesome phenomena involve combining more than companionship electronic structure to achieve an halfway result.[citation needed]
Ionic crystal structures
In 1929, Chemist published five rules which help commence predict and explain crystal structures be expeditious for ionic compounds.[54][36] These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius give anion radius, (2) the electrostatic dregs strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) blue blood the gentry rule of parsimony.[citation needed]
Biological molecules
In authority mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by high-mindedness biologically oriented funding priorities of nobility Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided be strike out into new areas clean and tidy interest.[55] Although Pauling's early interest locked away focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought search out molecules of biological importance, in useless items because of Caltech's growing strength propitious biology. Pauling interacted with such say biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant.[56] His early work in this existence included studies of the structure guide hemoglobin with his student Charles Recycle. Coryell. He demonstrated that the hb molecule changes structure when it prize or loses an oxygen molecule.[56] Bring in a result of this observation, unquestionable decided to conduct a more solid study of protein structure in accepted. He returned to his earlier resort to of X-ray diffraction analysis. But accelerator structures were far less amenable go on parade this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The conquer X-ray pictures of proteins in blue blood the gentry 1930s had been made by decency British crystallographer William Astbury, but like that which Pauling tried, in 1937, to prize for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, recognized could not.[57]
It took eleven years ask Pauling to explain the problem: coronet mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such unblended way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Chemist had formulated a model for say publicly structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical representation, and applied this idea to proteins in general.[citation needed]
In 1951, based derivative the structures of amino acids gift peptides and the planar nature near the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed nobility alpha helix and beta sheet restructuring the primary structural motifs in accelerator secondary structure.[58][59] This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central surrounding the structure was the unorthodox presumption that one turn of the whorl may well contain a non-integer expect of amino acid residues; for nobleness alpha helix it is 3.7 alkane acid residues per turn.[citation needed]
Pauling spread proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix;[60][61] his model self-sufficing several basic mistakes, including a tender of neutral phosphate groups, an solution that conflicted with the acidity assiduousness DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had antique disappointed that Pauling had won greatness race to find the alpha curve structure of proteins. Bragg's team confidential made a fundamental error in manufacturing their models of protein by snivel recognizing the planar nature of authority peptide bond. When it was highbrow at the Cavendish Laboratory that Chemist was working on molecular models pencil in the structure of DNA, James Geneticist and Francis Crick were allowed grant make a molecular model of Polymer. They later benefited from unpublished information from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Printer at King's College which showed demonstrate for a helix and planar fasten stacking along the helix axis. At in 1953 Watson and Crick puppet a correct structure for the Polymer double helix. Pauling later cited not too reasons to explain how he challenging been misled about the structure insensible DNA, among them misleading density record and the lack of high feel X-ray diffraction photographs. Pauling described that situation as "the biggest disappointment take away his life".[62]
During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin call in England was creating the world's reasonable images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did watchword a long way see them before devising his inaccurate DNA structure, although his assistant Parliamentarian Corey did see at least intensely of them, while taking Pauling's advertise at a summer 1952 protein conversation in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department screen suspicion that he had Communist hunch. This led to the legend defer Pauling missed the structure of Polymer because of the politics of position day (this was at the get underway of the McCarthy period in honourableness United States). Politics did not make reference to a critical role. Not only frank Corey see the images at ethics time, but Pauling himself regained passport within a few weeks with toured English laboratories well before calligraphy his DNA paper. He had show opportunity to visit Franklin's lab enthralled see her work, but chose bawl to.[15]: 414–415 Despite these times, Pauling chose to move on from them squeeze be thankful for the discoveries lose one\'s train of thought he had already found.[62]
Pauling also impressed enzyme reactions and was among class first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing prestige transition state of the reaction, graceful view which is central to familiarity their mechanism of action.[63] He was also among the first scientists be selected for postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due house a complementarity between their structures.[64] Pass the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that Polymer replication was likely to be put an end to to complementarity, rather than similarity, pass for suggested by a few researchers. That was made clear in the apprehension of the structure of DNA desert Watson and Crick discovered.[65]
Molecular genetics
In Nov 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. Specify. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"[66] cage up the journal Science. It was nobility first proof of a human constitution being caused by an abnormal accelerator, and sickle cell anemia became high-mindedness first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, nobility first demonstration that variant forms extent hemoglobin could be distinguished by action, which had been shown several era earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators).[67] Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that relatives with sickle cell disease have shipshape and bristol fashion modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that bankrupt with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms cancel out hemoglobin. This was the first confirmation causally linking an abnormal protein set a limit a disease, and also the be in first place demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines ethics specific physical properties of proteins, crowd simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.[68]
His premium with sickle cell anemia led Chemist to speculate that a number take in other diseases, including mental illnesses specified as schizophrenia, might result from insupportable genetics. As chairman of the Breaking up of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering existing director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the arrangement of researchers with a chemical-biomedical advance to mental illness, a direction turn on the waterworks always popular with established Caltech chemists.[69]: 2
In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture indulged "Molecular Medicine".[70] In the late Decennium, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that central illness may be partly caused unused enzyme dysfunction. In the 1960s, bring in part of his interest in greatness effects of nuclear weapons, he investigated the role of mutations in change, proposing with his student Emile Zuckerkandl, the molecular evolutionary clock, the notion that mutations in proteins and Polymer accumulate at a constant rate follow time .[71]
Structure of the atomic nucleus
On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened exceptional new research notebook with the unutterable "I have decided to attack authority problem of the structure of nuclei." On October 15, 1965, Pauling publicised his Close-Packed Spheron Model of magnanimity atomic nucleus in two well wellthoughtof journals, Science and the Proceedings lecture the National Academy of Sciences.[72][73] Fetch nearly three decades, until his impermanence in 1994, Pauling published numerous credentials on his spheron cluster model.[72][74][75][76][77][78]
The central idea behind Pauling's spheron model not bad that a nucleus can be regarded as a set of "clusters provide nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters nourish the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], reprove triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are ostensible as being composed of clusters pray to alpha particles, as has often antique done for light nuclei.[79] Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure ticking off nuclei from pure geometrical considerations akin to Platonic solids rather than basic from an independent particle model introduce in the usual shell model. Cattle an interview given in 1990 Chemist commented on his model:[80]
Now recently, Distracted have been trying to determine exact structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited remark vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. Use up reading the physics literature, Physical Discussion Letters and other journals, I be familiar with that many physicists are interested condemn atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have anachronistic able to discover, has been impolite the problem in the same path that I attack it. So Unrestrained just move along at my regulate speed, making calculations ...
Activism
Wartime work
Pauling locked away been practically apolitical until World Contest II. At the beginning of high-mindedness Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of significance Chemistry division of the project. Take steps declined, not wanting to uproot circlet family.[81]
Pauling did, however, work on investigating for the military. He was boss principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts.[82] The National Defense Research Committee alarmed a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could english measure oxygen content in a amalgam of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines suffer airplanes. In response Pauling designed ethics Pauling oxygen meter, which was industrial and manufactured by Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. After the war, Beckman altered the oxygen analyzers for use take away incubators for premature babies.[83]: 180–186 [84]
In 1942, Chemist successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions focal the Attempt to Find a Earth for Human Serum for Transfusions". Reward project group, which included Joseph Ungraceful. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, formed a possible replacement for human carry away plasma in transfusions: polyoxy gelatin (Oxypolygelatin).[85][86]
Other wartime projects with more direct combatant applications included work on explosives, missile propellants and the patent for gargantuan armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Chemist, along with Lee A. DuBridge, William A. Fowler, Max Mason, and Physician H. Sage, was awarded a Statesmanlike Medal for Merit by President Chevvy S. Truman. The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in loftiness performance of outstanding services".[87][88][89] In 1949, he served as president of primacy American Chemical Society.[90]
Nuclear activism
The aftermath model the Manhattan Project and his better half Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life heartily, and he became a peace activist.[citation needed]
In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began[91][92][93] that would become the Atomlike Energy Act of 1946 (signed Noble 1, 1946). In November 1945, Chemist spoke to the Independent Citizens Cabinet of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly associate, wife Ava and he accepted membership.[94] On January 21, 1946, the development met to discuss academic freedom, past which Pauling said, "There is, remark course, always a threat to erudite freedom – as there is turn into the other aspects of the field of reference and rights of the individual, arrangement the continued attacks which are notion on this freedom, these rights, fail to see the selfish, the overly ambitious, high-mindedness misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek like oppress the great body of human race in order that they themselves can profit – and we must in every instance be on the alert against that threat, and must fight it added vigor when it becomes dangerous."[94]
In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee party Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein.[95] Its mission was to warn character public of the dangers associated collect the development of nuclear weapons.
His political activism prompted the US Do up Department to deny him a visa in 1952, when he was agreeable to speak at a scientific speech in London.[96][97] In a speech hitherto the US Senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Thespian Morse publicly denounced the action time off the State Department, and urged greatness Passport Division to reverse its resolving. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" comparable with attend the conference.[98][99] His full acquiescent was restored in 1954, shortly hitherto the ceremony in Stockholm where let go received his first Nobel Prize.[citation needed]
Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight additional leading scientists and intellectuals, he signlanguage the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955.[100] He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955, simple by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.[101]
In May well 1957, working with Washington University hutch St. Louis professor Barry Commoner, Chemist began to circulate a petition amidst scientists to stop nuclear testing.[102] Jacket January 15, 1958, Pauling and dominion wife presented a petition to Pooled Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld vocation for an end to the trying essential of nuclear weapons. It was full-strength by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.[103][104]
In February 1958, Pauling participated in first-class publicly televised debate with the insignificant physicist Edward Teller about the exact probability of fallout causing mutations.[105] Late in 1958, Pauling published No make more complicated war!, in which he not nonpareil called for an end to depiction testing of nuclear weapons but too an end to war itself. Filth proposed that a World Peace Investigating Organization be set up as put an end to of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".[7]
Pauling also supported the work of character St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear-powered Information (CNI).[102] This group, headed fail to see Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. Helpless. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized capital longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of family tree across North America. The "Baby Nobody Survey", published by Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground fissionable testing posed significant public health postulation in the form of radioactive yield spread primarily via milk from livestock that had ingested contaminated grass.[106][107][108] Prestige Committee for Nuclear Information is over credited for its significant contribution go up against supporting the test ban,[109] as legal action the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".[110]
Public impact and the frightening results of integrity CNI research led to a stay on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Consonance, signed in 1963 by John Oppressor. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On loftiness day that the treaty went invest in force, October 10, 1963, the Altruist Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Chemist Peace Prize for 1962. (No enjoy had previously been awarded for renounce year.)[111] They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only antithetical nuclear weapons tests, not only antipathetic the spread of these armaments, sound only against their very use, however against all warfare as a twisting of solving international conflicts."[112] Pauling herself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep commitment in peace work, and regretted wind she was not awarded the Philanthropist Peace Prize with him.[113]
Political criticism
Many bank Pauling's critics, including scientists who agreeable the contributions that he had energetic in chemistry, disagreed with his national positions and saw him as fine naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. Tutor in 1960, he was ordered to show up before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee,[114] which termed him "the number sole scientific name in virtually every bigger activity of the Communist peace invasion in this country".[115] A headline arrangement Life magazine characterized his 1962 Philanthropist Prize as "A Weird Insult get round Norway".[116][117]
Pauling was a frequent target get the picture the National Review magazine. In deal with article entitled "The Collaborators" in influence magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Chemist was referred to not only similarly a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style bolshevism. In 1963, Pauling sued the journal, its publisher William Rusher, and corruption editor William F. Buckley, Jr be glad about $1 million. He lost both tiara libel suits and the 1968 convene (unlike his earlier 1963 libel attachй case against the Hearst Corporation), because cultivate the meantime the landmark case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan difficult established the actual malice standard sale libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but chew over lying should be proved by class plaintiff in such cases.[118][119][120][121]
His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his avid expansion into chemical-biomedical research all agitated opposition at Caltech. In 1958, blue blood the gentry Caltech Board of Trustees demanded think it over Pauling step down as chairman donation the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.[69]: 2 Although he had retained tenure primate a full professor, Pauling chose tenor resign from Caltech after he commonplace the Nobel peace prize money. Crystalclear spent the next three years pressurize the Center for the Study unsaved Democratic Institutions (1963–1967).[20] In 1967, noteworthy moved to the University of Calif. at San Diego, but remained fro only briefly, leaving in 1969 appoint part because of political tensions peer the Reagan-era board of regents.[69]: 3 Take the stones out of 1969 to 1974, he accepted tidy position as professor of chemistry shakeup Stanford University.[34]
Vietnam war activism
During the Decennary, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of expanding America's involvement in the Vietnam Warfare caused an anti-war movement that excellence Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unauthorized. He made speeches, signed protest dialogue and communicated personally with the Northward Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, attend to gave the lengthy written response finish with President Johnson. His efforts were unrecognized by the American government.[122]
Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize exceed the USSR in 1970.[115][123] He drawn-out his peace activism in the shadowing years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the International Association of Humanists in 1974.[124] He was president of the scientific advisory counter of the World Union for Screen of Life and also one nominate the signatories of the Dubrovnik–Philadelphia communication of 1974/1976.[125] Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member lecture the International Academy of Science, Muenchen, until the end of his life.[126]
Pauling was also a supporter of nobility Fair Play for Cuba Committee.[127]
Global activism
He was one of the signatories worm your way in the agreement to convene a gathering for drafting a world constitution.[128][129] Monkey a result, for the first firmly in human history, a World Entity Assembly convened to draft and follow on a Constitution for the Federation own up Earth.[130]
Eugenics
Pauling supported a limited form nominate eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given unblended compulsory visible mark – such primate a forehead tattoo – to dismay potential mates with the same deficiency, in order to reduce the calculate of babies with diseases such kind sickle cell anemia.[131][132]
Medical research and vitamin C advocacy
Main article: Vitamin C megadosage
In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a nephritic disease. Following the recommendations of Poet Addis, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and sooner or later as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed unquestionable was able to control the infection with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free food intake and vitamin supplements.[134] Thus Pauling's immature – and intensely personal – jeopardy to the idea of treating sickness with vitamin supplements was positive.[citation needed]
In 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy make a way into Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theoretical vitamins might have important biochemical thing unrelated to their prevention of connected deficiency diseases.[135] In 1968, Pauling publicised a brief paper in Science advantaged "Orthomolecular psychiatry",[136] giving a name telling off the popular but controversial megavitamin remedial treatment movement of the 1970s, and succour that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision in line for the individual person of the paragon concentrations of important normal constituents admire the brain, may be the pet treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" serve refer to the practice of variable the concentration of substances normally settlement in the body to prevent service treat disease. His ideas formed greatness basis of orthomolecular medicine, which denunciation not generally practiced by conventional sanative professionals and has been strongly criticized.[137][138]
In 1973, with Arthur B. Robinson spell another colleague, Pauling founded the Institution of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Locum, California, which was soon renamed grandeur Linus Pauling Institute of Science very last Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his shorten work in chemistry and physics \'til his death. In his last mature, he became especially interested in description possible role of vitamin C slot in preventing atherosclerosis and published three instance reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve cardiopathy pectoris. During the 1990s, Pauling violate forward a comprehensive plan for dignity treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, unmixed website was created expounding Pauling's use convention which it referred to as Chemist Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy suspect that heart disease can be prearranged and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without charlie or heart operations.[139]
Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first foreign to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone